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    [21] 見(jiàn)Stewart, ,同前注[1],at1732-56;相反論述可見(jiàn):Richrd L, Revesz, Federalism and Environmental Regulation:A Public Choice Analysis.115 Harv, L, Rev, 553, 567(2001)(提出“對(duì)于集中化的企業(yè)利益者來(lái)講,附加資源使其要比分散的消費(fèi)者和環(huán)保利益者要更易參與到更多的程序中去。”)。
    [22] 參見(jiàn):Motor Vehicle Mfrs, Ass’n v, State Farm Mut. Life Ins.Co, 463U.S.29, 42-43(1983)(認(rèn)為司法審查要確保行政決定是基于所有相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)之上且能為合理的解釋所支持的);United States v.N.S.Food Prods. Corp, 568 F.2b 240, 252(2b Cir,1977)(認(rèn)為行政決定的作出須是包括前提信息的開示,大量建議的回應(yīng)和對(duì)其行為的合理說(shuō)明三項(xiàng)工作。); Scenic Hudson Pres, Conference v.Fed. Power Comm’n,354F.2b608, 620-21(2b Cir,1965)(提出由于法院不能用裁判代替行政決定,因而司法審查的義務(wù)就旨在考量在行政決定作出過(guò)程中的所有信息。)。
    [23] 見(jiàn)Stewart, 同前注[1], at 1711-90; 又見(jiàn)Breyer 等, 同前注[16], at26-30。
    [24] Exec, Order No.12, 291, 3 C.F.R, 127(1982), reprinted in 5U.S.C.§601(1988).該命令已被克林頓總統(tǒng)所簽發(fā)的Exec. Order No.12, 866, 3 C.F.R. 638(1994), reprinted in 5 U.S.C.&601(2000)所取代。雖然,它對(duì)里根總統(tǒng)的命令在程序和實(shí)體上作了一定程度的修正,但其基本制度仍未改變。
    [25] 見(jiàn)James F. Blumstin, Regulatory Review by the Executive Office of the President: An Overview and Policy Analysis of Current Issues, 51 Duke L.J.851-59 (2001)(解釋了12291號(hào)令作出的背景原因);Richard H. Pildes & Cass R. Sunstein. Reinventing the Regulatory State, 62 U.Chi.L.Rev.1, 3(1995)(也對(duì)12291號(hào)作出的背景作了解釋);與主張?jiān)谶@一問(wèn)題及其它相關(guān)問(wèn)題上的總統(tǒng)授權(quán)觀點(diǎn)相左的論述試比較Cynthia R, Fiorina, Undoing the New Deal Through the New Presidentialism.22 Harv, J.L. & Pub. Pol’y227(1998)(批評(píng)正在發(fā)現(xiàn)的總統(tǒng)主義有著天然的解除控制和不合目的的傾向);與Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 Harv. L.Rev.2245(2001)(為克林頓總統(tǒng)運(yùn)用法規(guī)來(lái)支持其政策和政治事務(wù)的做法作了辯護(hù))。
    [26] 42 U.S.C.&1983(2000) (將對(duì)公民權(quán)的剝奪作為一個(gè)提起訴訟的理由)。
    [27] 見(jiàn)Bivens v.Six Unknown Named Agents of Fed.Bureau of Narcotics, 403 U.S.388.391-92(1971)(裁定聯(lián)邦官員違反憲法第四條之規(guī)定可以作為公民提起訴訟的理由)。
    [28] Peter L. Strauss. From Expertise to Polittes: The Transformation of American Rulemaking, 31 Wake Forest L.Rev.745, 755-56,760(1996)。
    [29] 同上, at767。
    [30] 見(jiàn) Richard B. Stewart, A New Generation of Environmental Regulation?, 29 Cap.U.L.Rev,21,38-54(2001)。
    [31] 作為對(duì)行政法的利益集團(tuán)代表模式的各種限制的討論,可參見(jiàn):Jim Rossi, Participation Run Amok: The Costs of Mass Participation for Deliberative Agency Decisionmaking, 92 Nw.U.L.Rev.173, 236-41(1997)(警告說(shuō)越廣泛的參加會(huì)使得行政機(jī)關(guān)傾向于同冒失的行為達(dá)成政治協(xié)妥從而在一定程度上削弱行政機(jī)關(guān)決定的作出);又見(jiàn) Mark Seidenfeld, Empowering Stakeholders: Limits on Collaboration as the Basis for Flexible Regulation,41 Wm, &Mary L.Rev.411,427-45(2000)(作者認(rèn)為利益集團(tuán)的內(nèi)在結(jié)構(gòu)和功能使得其不能參與到協(xié)作型的管理計(jì)劃中去);又見(jiàn)Stewart, ,同前注[1], at1762-70(主要討論哪些利益需要去代表以及產(chǎn)生此類代表的方式問(wèn)題)。
    [32] 通?蓞⒁(jiàn):William Funk, Bargaining Toward the New Millennium: Regulatory Negotiation and the Subversion of the Public Interest,46 Duke L.J.1351(1997)(因會(huì)使行政機(jī)關(guān)削弱對(duì)公共利益的考慮而對(duì)協(xié)商性法規(guī)制定作了批評(píng));William Funk, When Smoke Gets in Your Eyes: Regulatory Negotiation and the Public Interest-EPA’s Woodstove Standards, 18 Emvtl. L.55(1987)(強(qiáng)調(diào)說(shuō)協(xié)商性法規(guī)制定模式只能會(huì)使行政機(jī)關(guān)淪為幫助利益相關(guān)人達(dá)成合意的促進(jìn)者,且會(huì)引起行政機(jī)關(guān)超越法定權(quán)限行為的危險(xiǎn)。);但也有相反的觀點(diǎn),如Philip J. Harter, Assessing the Assessors: The Actual Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking. 9 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J.32(2002)(簡(jiǎn)述了行政協(xié)商的優(yōu)點(diǎn))。
    [33] 見(jiàn)Lewis A. Kornhauser, On Justifying Cost-Benefit Analysis. 29 J. Legal Stud. 1037, 1054(2000);但也有相反的觀點(diǎn),見(jiàn)Exec. Order No. 12,866, 3 C.F.R. 638(1994), reprinted in 5 U.S.C. § 601 (2000)(旨在言明成本效益分析法的不足)。
    [34] 見(jiàn)Margret Catde, Can Bambi Ride Herd over Godzilla? The Role of Esecutive Oversight in EPA’s Rulemaking for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, 36 Nat. Resources J. 643, 675-76 & n.248(1996)(鑒于國(guó)會(huì)的核廢物政策,作者認(rèn)為OMB對(duì)EPA的監(jiān)管不僅沒(méi)能澄清反而模糊了其在政治上所負(fù)的說(shuō)明責(zé)任。);又見(jiàn)Erik D. Olson, The Quiet Shift of Power: Office of Management & Budget Supervision of Envi-Resources L.1, 28-35, 55-57(1984)(認(rèn)為OMB對(duì)EPA法規(guī)的審查既沒(méi)能增進(jìn)行政機(jī)關(guān)的說(shuō)明義務(wù),也沒(méi)能促進(jìn)強(qiáng)有力的分析。)。.
    [35] 通?蓞⒖迹篒an Ayres & John Brathwaite. Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (1992);以及Stewart, 同前注[30] at 27-38。
    [36] Mark Seidenfeld, Demystifying Deossification; Rethinking Recent Proposals to Modify Judicial Review of Notice and Comment Rulemaking, 75 Tex. L. Rev. 483, 483-84(1997)(由于不必要的分析障礙,行政法上旨在擴(kuò)大公眾參與的新發(fā)展已不經(jīng)意地阻礙了法規(guī)的制定。)。
    [37] 見(jiàn)Stewart, 同前注[30], at 27-38。
    [38] 見(jiàn) Regulatory Encounters: Multinational Corporations and American Adversary Legalism 404-05(Robert A. Kagan & Lee Axelrad eds., 2000); Richard B. Stewart, Recon-stitutive Law, 46 Md. L. Rev. 86, 103-04(1986)。
    [39] Jody Freeman, Collaborative Governance in the Administrative State, 45 UCLA L. Rev.1, 5, 18-19(1997) (提出對(duì)抗性的代表程序會(huì)導(dǎo)致法規(guī)制定的延緩、僵化和缺乏創(chuàng)新性。)。
    [40] 見(jiàn) Seidenfeld, 同前注[36], at 483 ( “僵化”是指行政機(jī)關(guān)在采用新法規(guī)之前由于須首先清除分析上的障礙,從而使得管理方案缺乏效率);又見(jiàn)Thomas O. McGarity, Some Thoughts on “Deossifying” the Rulemaking Process, 41 Duke L.J. 1385, 1387-1436(1992)(概述了“僵化”的原因和后果);Richard J. Pierce, Jr., Seven Ways to Deossify Agency Rulemaking, 47 Admin. L. Rev. 59, 60-66(1995) (同樣簡(jiǎn)述了“僵化”的原因和后果)。
    [41] 有關(guān)風(fēng)險(xiǎn)評(píng)估和效果分析在多大程度上才是不合算的,以及如何才能有效推遲行政決定的作出的討論?蓞⒁(jiàn):Celia Campbell-Mohn & John S. Applegate, Learning from NEPA: Guidelines for Responsible Risk Legislation, 23 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 93, 126-27(1999); 以及Thomas O. McGarity, The Espanded Debate over the Future of the Regulatory State, 63 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1463, 1523(1996)。
    [42] 見(jiàn)Robert A. Anthony, Interpretive Rules, Policy Statements, Guidances, Manuals, and the Like-Should Federal Agencies Use Them to Bind the Public?, 41 Duke L.J.1311, 1332-55 (1992)(提供了一些行政機(jī)關(guān)運(yùn)用非立法性政策文件來(lái)約束公眾的例子);又見(jiàn)Lars Noah, Scientific “Republicanism”: Espert peer Review and the Quest for Regulatory Deliberation, 49 Emory L.J. 1033, 1068-69 & n.161(2000)(為防止改革的僵化,行政機(jī)關(guān)可能會(huì)選擇不太正式的機(jī)制。)。
    [43] 一般可參見(jiàn)Freeman,同前注[39](認(rèn)為行政法的聯(lián)合管理模式可以代替利益代表模式);又見(jiàn)Georgette C. Poindexter, Addressing Morality in Urban Brownfield Redevelopment: Using Stake-holder Theory to Craft Legal Process, 15 Va. Envtl. L.J. 37(1995)(作者運(yùn)用利益相關(guān)人理論的規(guī)范原則來(lái)提出所有相關(guān)選民的要求,并在允許經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)的同時(shí)促進(jìn)平等);還可見(jiàn)Seidenfeld ,同前注[39] at414-26(為促進(jìn)協(xié)作性管理方式而完善了利益相關(guān)人理論);以及Stewart, 同前注[30], at 60-94(簡(jiǎn)述了合同和準(zhǔn)合同性質(zhì)的行政管理方案的使用)。
    [44] 見(jiàn) Neil Gunningham & Peter Grabonsky, Smart Regulation: Designing Environ-mental Policy 123-29 (1998)。
    [45] 有關(guān)這一方式之優(yōu)點(diǎn)的論述,可比較Cary Coglianese, Assessing Consensus: The Promise and Performance of Negotiated Rulemaking, 46 Duke L.J. 1255 (1997)(討論了因協(xié)商性法規(guī)制定方法而致的審查和裁決中的缺陷);與Philip J. Harter, Negotiating Regulations: A Cure for Malaise, 71 Geo. L.J. 1(1982)(支持協(xié)商性法規(guī)制定方式的使用)。
    [46] 通常可以參見(jiàn) Notice, Medicare and Medicaid Programs Health Care Financing Research and Demonstration Cooperative Agreements and Grants for Fiscal Year 1991, 56 Fed. Reg. 26, 120 (June 6, 1991)。
    [47] Pub. L. No. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884 (1973) (codified as amended at 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (2000)). See generally Notice, Medicare and Medicaid Programs Health Care Financing Research and Demonstration Cooperative Agreements and Grants for Fiscal Year 1991, 56 Fed. Reg. 26,120 (June 6, 1991)。
    [48] 一般可以參見(jiàn)Bradley C. Karkkainen, Collaborative Ecosystem Governance: Scale, Complexity, and Dynamism, 21 Va. Envtl. L.J. 189 (2002)(介紹了正在出現(xiàn)的“協(xié)作生態(tài)系統(tǒng)管理”模式,該模式強(qiáng)調(diào)要通過(guò)廣泛的公——私合作、協(xié)作和信息共享來(lái)為本土生態(tài)問(wèn)題設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)解決之道);又見(jiàn)Albert C. Lin, Participants’ Experiences with Habitat Conservation Plans and Suggestions for Streamlining the Process, 23 Ecology L.Q. 369, 379 & n.49 (1996)(簡(jiǎn)述了在《瀕臨滅絕物種法》中的協(xié)商程序)。
    [49] 一般可見(jiàn)Michael C. Dorf & Charles F. Sabel, A Constitution of Democratic Experimentalism, 98 Colum. L. Rev. 267, 283 (1998)(針對(duì)現(xiàn)代生活的情況提出了民主實(shí)驗(yàn)主義(democratic experimentalism)的管理模式)。
    [50] Joshua Cohen & Charles F. Sabel, Sovereignty and Solidarity: EU and US, in Governing Work and Welfare in a New Economy: European and American Experiments 691, 694-95 (Jonathan Zeitlin與David Trubeck主編,2003年即將出版) [hereinafter Governing Work], 可瀏覽 http: //web. mit. edu/ polisci/ research/ cohen/ sovereignty and_ solidarity_EU_ _ and_US. pdf.;有關(guān)協(xié)作公開方法(OMC)的描述,可參見(jiàn):Caroline de la Porte & Philippe Pochet, Introduction, in Building Social Europe Through the Open Method of Co-ordination 11, 13-16 (Caroline de la Porte與Philippe Pochet主編,2002年出版);有關(guān)OMC在就業(yè)政策上的運(yùn)用的評(píng)估可參閱:Catherine Barnard & Simon Deakin, “Negative” and “Positive” Harmonization of Labor Law in the European Union, 8 Colum. J. Eur. L. 389, 411-12 (2002); David M. Trubek & James Mosher, New Governance, EU Employment Policy, and the European Social Model, in Governing Work, 同前,at 95可瀏覽http: // www. jeanmonnetprogram. org/ papers/ 01/ 011501. html。
    [51] Stewart, 同前注[30], at 138-39。
    [52] 見(jiàn) Bradley C. Karkkainen, Information as Environmental Regulation; TRI and Performance Benchmarking, Precursor to a New Paradigm?, 89 Geo. L.J. 257, 259-63 (2001) (有毒物質(zhì)排放目錄(TRI)成功地授權(quán)公司自行確立參考標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和自我監(jiān)管,并且有效促進(jìn)了環(huán)境的依法治理。)。
    [53] 一般可參見(jiàn)William M. Sage, Regulating Through Information: Disclosure Laws and American Health Care, 99 Colum. L. Rev. 1701(1999)(分析了規(guī)范醫(yī)療行業(yè)的強(qiáng)制公開法)。
    [54] Stewart,同前注[30],at 134-36, 143-45。
    [55] 見(jiàn)Alan S. Miller, Energy Policy from Nixon to Clinton: From Grand Provider to Market Facilitator, 25 Envtl. L. 715, 728 n.111(1995) (highlighting Department of Energy Climate Challenge programs and EPA Energy Star and Green Lights programs)。
    [56] .Stewart, 同前注[30] at 127-34. (“反身環(huán)保法”旨在在業(yè)界建立自我反醒的程序以鼓勵(lì)有關(guān)減少環(huán)境污染的創(chuàng)新行為、相關(guān)批評(píng)和對(duì)此問(wèn)題的持續(xù)思考);Gunther Teubner, Substantive and Reflexive Elements in Modern Law, 17 Law & Soc’y Rev. 239 (1983)(對(duì)“反身法”與其它環(huán)保法理論作了比較)。
    [57] 一般可參見(jiàn)Richard B. Stewart, Economic Incentives for Environmental Protection: Opportunities and Obstacles, in Environmental Law, the Economy and Sustainable Development: The United States, the European Union and the International Community 171 (Richard L. Revesz, Philippe Sands 與Richard B. Stewart主編 2000) [此后簡(jiǎn)稱Revesz, Sands & Stewart](分析了經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)機(jī)制在國(guó)際、國(guó)內(nèi)方面的運(yùn)用。)。.
    [58].Stewart, 同前注[38] , at 88-89。
    [59] Stewart, 同前注[57] ,at 180-84, 212-14。
    [60] Alfred C. Aman, Jr., The Limits of Globalization and the Future of Administrative Law: From Government to Governance, 8 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 379, 399 (2001)(由于行政法的變革方法,公和私的界限已變得日益模糊。)。
    [61] 見(jiàn)Dorf與 Sabel, 同前注[49], at 314-23(概括了“民主試驗(yàn)主義”的管理模式)。
    [62] 見(jiàn) Aman, 同前注[60], at 396 (“集中于國(guó)內(nèi)外角色轉(zhuǎn)換的行政法方法以及公或私的合作關(guān)系都應(yīng)主要滿足透明和參與的需要”);又見(jiàn)Alfred C. Aman, Jr., Proposals for Reforming the Administrative Procedure Act: Globalization, Democracy and the Furtherance of a Global Public Interest, 6 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 397, 415-17 (1999)(建議將《行政程序法》和《信息自由法》的規(guī)定應(yīng)用于私人部門以代替政府實(shí)體的管理)。
    [63] 見(jiàn) Dorf 和 Sabel, 同前注[49] , at 345-48 (強(qiáng)調(diào)了由行政機(jī)關(guān)制定基準(zhǔn)的重要性)。.
    [64] 見(jiàn) Eckard Rehbinder, Market-Based Incentives for Environmental Protection, in Revesz, Sands & Stewart, supra note 57, at 245, 248-49 (提倡應(yīng)對(duì)廣義經(jīng)濟(jì)激勵(lì)機(jī)制的個(gè)別效果進(jìn)行司法審查)。.
    [65] 參看Aman,同前注[60] at 379-80(對(duì)行政管理從以國(guó)家為中心的命令控制模式到市場(chǎng)模式的轉(zhuǎn)變而導(dǎo)致市場(chǎng)激勵(lì)機(jī)制和公私合作的產(chǎn)生進(jìn)行了評(píng)述)。但Aman提出管理的市場(chǎng)模式已越發(fā)變得平凡(Commonplace)的原因,“并非是由于將行政權(quán)力轉(zhuǎn)讓給私人部門這一哲理性決定的結(jié)果,似乎這是公與私之間的一場(chǎng)不分勝負(fù)的比賽(a zero-sum game between ‘the public’ and ‘the private.’)。而是因?yàn)槭袌?chǎng)和私人部門沒(méi)有專橫的缺點(diǎn)、可以不受地區(qū)限制的影響來(lái)處理問(wèn)題,因而其地位也就越發(fā)突出了!蓖蟖t 391。
    [66] 見(jiàn) Bruce A. Ackerman和 Richard B. Stewart, Reforming Environmental Law, 37 Stan. L. Rev. 1333, 1356-57 (1985)(認(rèn)為基于恰當(dāng)激勵(lì)機(jī)制上的行政決定可能引發(fā)公眾關(guān)于環(huán)境二難困境和議會(huì)政策的討論)。對(duì)這一主張的批評(píng)可參見(jiàn):Lisa Heinzerling, Selling Pollution, Forcing Democracy, 14 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 300, 311-18 (1995)。
    [67] 見(jiàn)Stephen G. Breyer, Breaking the Vicious Circle: Toward Effective Risk Regulation (1993);又見(jiàn)Edward W. Warren & Gary E. Marchant, “More Good than Harm”: A First Principle for Environmental Agencies and Reviewing Courts, 20 Ecology L.Q. 379, 438-39 (1993) (對(duì)促進(jìn)和擴(kuò)張執(zhí)行機(jī)構(gòu)的法規(guī)監(jiān)管進(jìn)行了討論)。
    [68] 有關(guān)水平網(wǎng)絡(luò)管理概念的介紹可參見(jiàn):Ann-Marie Slaughter, The Accountability of Government Networks, 8 Ind. J. Global Legal Stud. 347 (2001)(概述了跨國(guó)政府管理網(wǎng)絡(luò)和責(zé)任的問(wèn)題);另外也可參閱:Peter M. Haas, Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination, 46 Int’l Org. 1 (1992)(考察了國(guó)際政策協(xié)調(diào)對(duì)決定作出程序的影響)。
    [69] 見(jiàn) Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Sept. 16, 1987, art. 2, 26 I.L.M. 1550 (1989年1月1日生效); Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties, 3d Sess., Agenda Item 5, U.N. Doc. No. FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (1997), 37 I.L.M. 32 (1998)可瀏覽 http://unfccc. Int/ resource/docs/cop3/107a01.htm。
    [70] 見(jiàn)Eleanor D. Kinney, The Emerging Field of International Administrative Law: Its Content and Potential, 54 Admin. L. Rev. 415, 425-32 (2002) (概述了當(dāng)?shù)胤胶吐?lián)邦政府將行政權(quán)轉(zhuǎn)交給國(guó)際管理組織時(shí)所面臨的挑戰(zhàn))。.

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    論文分類

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